Dynasties are periods of rule by successive members of the same royal family. Ancient Egyptian dynasties begin with Menes about 3100 BC and end with the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. In addition, modern researchers refer to important phases of development, some of which are listed below in chronological order. Dates are only certain after 664 BC and vary depending upon scholastic source. So, in summary we have:
Prehistoric Egypt 5000 – 3100 BC
Prehistoric Times. This early period was a transition to a food producing economy on fringes of the Nile. These Neolithic cultures, African in affinity, cleared, irrigated the land and domesticated animals. By 3500 BC, Hierakonpolis in Upper Egypt was the largest settlement. It spread some 3km along the Nile. The Nile supported two kingdoms; the red crown of Lower Egypt (delta) with Horus, the falcon god as its principle deity and the white crown of Upper Egypt. Seth, the god of storms and chaos, was its prime deity. Burial mounds were little more than subterranean tombs with rectangular timber and brick structures with sloping sides covering them, called mastaba.
Early Dynastic Period 3100 - 2686 BC
Unification. Menes reign begins with unification of these two lands. As hieroglyphs first appear, this signalled the start of Egypt’s recorded history and the beginning of the Dynastic Periods. Kings ruled as divine beings. Menes established his capital at Memphis near the apex of the Nile delta. It was to become one of the ancient world’s greatest cities. Lavish tombs were constructed at nearby Saqqara.
A pre-curser to the Book of the Dead, a funerary text, was composed about 2400 BC. Wall paintings in tombs were first created 2700 BC; painted relief sculptures first appeared 2660 BC; and the first seated and standing statues were produced at this same time. This was a period of wealth accumulation and skill building. Writing, painting, time, and mathematical concepts became apparent.
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Old Kingdom 2686 – 2180 BC
A Golden Age & Pyramid Cult. Kings by now were considered reincarnations of the god Horus and the son of Re (the sun god). Pyramids were lavish tombs and were symbolic of Egypt, wisdom and eternal stability. These massive tombs had a dual function which was to protect the mummy and possessions and symbolise the absolute, god-like power of the king. They did not evolve out of necessity but were inspired by religious demand.
What is clear however, is that the king was able to command and effectively organize labour for their construction, fitting the task in with the demands of seasonal work. Initially step pyramids were constructed, the largest at (2630 BC) at Saqqara. Its construction was simply a piling of mastabas of diminishing size with a sandstone facing - big but rather impractical.
The true pyramid follows design principles of permanence and regularity. The ancient Egyptians used cubic measurement and preferred the heavier post & lintel even though they knew of the arch and vault. They preferred static form with a finishing layer of either red granite or white limestone. Hemon designed the Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza 2550 BC and Kharfe built the Sphinx at Thebes in 2515 BC. This beast with its organic form makes an interesting contrast to the surrounding geometric tombs.
Temples too were built with similar geometric severity. Their massive size reassured the populace of the might of their nation and assured the king’s eternal & changeless power.
Even so, internal stability began to teeter with the rise of Nobles’ power. They began to build great tombs for themselves. Furthermore, these tombs were located within their own family districts rather than around the pyramid of the king. It was the beginning of decentralisation of his absolute power. Consolidation of local control eventually saw the demise of the king. Civil war broke out, there was a breakdown of the king’s pivotal authority and chaos ruled as the Old Kingdom vanished.
